My inspiration for our story today came from one our readers. Larry R. contacted me about needing assistance regarding his cousin, Josephine. Working for the American Voluntary Ambulance Corps (AVAC), Josephine was an ambulance driver in France before its surrender to the Germans in June 1940. Larry’s mission has been to obtain official recognition for Josephine and her services to France. I’m happy to say that due to Larry’s considerable efforts, the French government has issued an official letter commending Josephine for her assistance to France.
Like Larry’s cousin, time has condemned the memory of the brave women of Des Rochambeau, or Rochambelles to history. Thanks to author Elle Hampton and her 2006 book, the complete story has been told about Florence Conrad and her Rochambeau ambulance drivers.
Women of the “Des Rochambeau.” Anne-Marie Davion is lower right. Photo by anonymous (date unknown).
Did You Know?
Did you know that eighth graders’ test scores in U.S. history and civics fell to the lowest levels on record? Although some improvement was made during the 1990s, the trend began to reverse itself and for the 2022-23 school year, knowledge of history and civics reached an all-time low. Only thirteen percent of all eighth graders met proficiency standards for history while twenty percent met or exceeded minimum standards for civics studies.
Course description for eighth grade social studies in Akron, Ohio “middle schools.” (Middle schools were eliminated in favor of “Community Learning Centers.”) Photo by anonymous (date unknown).
Can we blame the pandemic? Perhaps but trends had been declining pre-pandemic with substantial gaps in student achievement. The study showed that high-performing students maintained their academic levels while low-performing students had significant drops. I’m sure we could probably see the same results in other subjects because of the pandemic’s two to three years of “Zoom” schooling. However, across the board, U.S. history scores were the worst of any subject assessed with civics coming in second worst.
Course description for tenth grade social studies in Akron, Ohio “high schools.” (High schools were eliminated in favor of “Community Learning Centers.”) Photo by anonymous (date unknown).
The commissioner of the National Center for Education Statistics was shocked at the results and said, “(the scores are) woefully low in comparison to other subjects.” The secretary of education (a federal cabinet position appointed by the president) has implied the blame belongs to the opposition political party.
For those of us who believe history does repeat itself, these educational trends will likely manifest this opinion into a self-fulfilling prophecy.
Ambulance Drivers
I suppose the first “ambulance” was probably a cloth hammock tied to two poles and pulled by a human or animal. Records of various methods for transporting the injured date to 900 A.D. However, a radical design change occurred in 1792 when Dominique Jean Larrey (1766−1842), Napoléon’s chief physician, created the ambulance volantes, or “flying ambulances.” These were rapidly mobilized horse-drawn carriages with trained drivers, corpsmen, and litter bearers. Read More The Rochambelles
Many people are familiar with the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin’s Olympiastadion. That was the Olympics where Jesse Owens won the gold medal in track in front of Adolf Hitler and senior Nazi officials. However, did you know that Germany also hosted the 1936 Winter Olympics? (The last time both winter and summer games were held in the same country in the same year.) Somehow, Hitler obtained a “two-fer” that year for the purpose of showcasing his National Socialism party to the world.
The logo for the 1936 Winter Olympics. Photo by anonymous (date unknown). PD-Life of the author plus 70 years. Wikimedia Commons.The Olympiastadion in Berlin, site of the 1936 Summer Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. 1936). Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-R82532/CC-BY-SA 3.0. PD-CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Germany. Wikimedia Commons.
I recently wrote a blog about a Norwegian footballer who competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics (click here to read the blog, Two Footballers and a War). Today, you will be introduced to another 1936 Olympian. This time our story is about a hockey player who played for the German national team in the Winter Olympics. What is remarkable is that Rudi was Jewish and Hitler allowed him to participate.
Did You Know?
Did you know that in 1929 the United States Navy sent Joseph Rochefort and two other young officers to Japan for three years to become fluent in the language and culture? Did the navy foresee the future conflict with Japan or was it just dumb luck? For Capt. Rochefort it was the foundation that he and his team of codebreakers needed to determine if they had enough evidence from Japanese radio messages to convince Adm. Chester Nimitz that the emperor’s naval fleet was enroute to attack Midway Island. Unfortunately, Nimitz and his staff did not believe Rochefort. That is, until the codebreakers came up with a plan to change the admiral’s mind.
Lt. Joseph Rochefort. Photo by anonymous (15 September 1934). National Security Agency.
The Battle of Midway took place between 4−7 June 1942, and it was the turning point in the Pacific war. Six months after their December 1941 surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and Col. Doolittle’s 18 April 1942 air raid on Tokyo, the Japanese navy under admirals Yamamoto, Nagumo, and Kondō planned a trap for U.S. aircraft carriers. The admirals hoped to lure the carriers to the Coral Sea where their navy would defeat the American navy and clear the way for attacks on Midway, Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii. During the four-day battle, the Japanese lost four aircraft carriers and a heavy cruiser. The Americans lost the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer. After the U.S. victory, the Japanese were never able to recover from nor replace its loss of ships. Additionally, Yamamoto abandoned his plan to invade Midway.
Lt. Col. James Doolittle performs a full-throttle takeoff from the USS Hornet 650 miles from Japan. Photo by anonymous (18 April 1942). PD-U.S. Government. Wikimedia Commons.
Rochefort and his men devised a plan to convince Nimitz their intelligence was correct. They had the U.S. base in Midway send out a message that the Midway desalination system was failing. The Japanese intercepted the message and immediately provided desalting materials to their ships. After Rochefort’s team decoded this information, it proved to Nimitz that Midway was the target and Nimitz’s fleet was waiting to meet the Japanese flotilla. Rochefort and his codebreakers were vindicated. Unfortunately, Rochefort was never given credit for his role in the Midway victory despite being proposed for the Distinguished Service Medal. However, President Reagan posthumously awarded Rochefort with the medal forty-four years after the Battle of Midway.
The USS Yorktown (CV-5) burning after the first attack by Japanese dive bombers during the Battle of Midway. Photo by anonymous (4 June 1942). U.S. Navy Naval History and Heritage Command. PD-U.S. Government. Wikimedia Commons.
Sometimes it takes a while to correct a wrong.
The Führerbunker
After driving into what was left of Berlin three days after Hitler killed himself in the Führerbunker on 30 April 1945, Maj. Gordon Dailley (1911−1989) and Ian Gordon, a British war correspondent and former hockey journalist, found themselves in front of the bunker entrance. There they found several empty jerry cans laying in a shallow trench. They knew Hitler was dead and assumed the fuel in the cans was used to burn the dictator’s body. While no one was looking, they took the cans as souvenirs.
The former Reich Chancellery Garden. The entrance to the Führerbunker is the rectangular building to the left of the conical unit (center) which is an observation tower. To the right of the tower is the grand reception hall of the old Reich Chancellery. In the background are the Foreign Service offices. Photo by anonymous (c. 1947). Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-V04744/CC-BY-SA 3.0. PD-CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Germany. Wikimedia Commons.Shallow trench outside the Führerbunker in the garden of the Reich Chancelllery where the bodies of Hitler and Eva Braun were burned. Where are the jerry cans? Photo by William Vandivert (c. May 1945). Life Pictures/Shutterstock.Outside the entrance to the Führerbunker. The shallow trench in the foreground is presumably where the bodies of Hitler and Eva Braun were burned. Photo by William Vandivert (c. May 1945). Life Pictures/Shutterstock.
Before the war, Canadian-born Dailley had been an ice hockey player who played for Great Britain in international competitions including the 1936 Winter Olympics. (Dailley’s national hockey team won the gold medal, and it was Great Britain’s only gold medal.)
Gordon Dailley playing hockey (left) and later in life as the founder of the African Lion Safari in Cambridge, Ontario, Canada. Photos by anonymous (dates unknown).
After their visit to the former Führerbunker, Dailley and Gordon drove through the bombed-out streets of Berlin. German citizens who survived the savage fighting by the Soviet soldiers and bombs were queuing in the streets for food that was being passed out by Allied troops. As they passed by one line, Dailley spotted a familiar face. Standing in line was a man whom Dailley faced nine years earlier on the rink at the Winter Olympics. He knew Rudi Ball was Jewish but how on earth did he survive the war?
Let’s Meet Rudi Ball
Rudolf Victor “Rudi” Ball (1911−1975) was born in Berlin to a wealthy Jewish textile merchant. His mother was a Lithuanian Christian and Rudi was the youngest of three boys. Rudi’s brothers, Gerhard (1903−1982) and Heinz (1907−1966), played hockey but Rudi did not show any interest in the sport but rather concentrated on academic studies. However, by the time he was fifteen, Rudi saw his brothers play against a Canadian, Blake Wilson. For some reason, Wilson’s style of play stoked Rudi’s interest in hockey and he decided to play. One thing concerned him: Rudi was only 5’4” and weighed 140 pounds. His father bought him skates and paid for private lessons with the Swedish hockey player, Nils Molander (1889−1974). As Rudi studied the game, he became convinced his size could be used to his advantage.
Ball family photo. From left to right: Heinz, Rudi, father Leonard, and Gerhard. Photo by anonymous (c. 1929). Birger Nordmark.Nils Molander. Photo by anonymous (2 January 1914). Agence Rol. PD-95 years or fewer since publication. Wikimedia Commons.
Professional Hockey
Seventeen-year-old Rudi Ball was selected to play for the Berliner SC second tier team for the 1927-28 season. He quickly became their top scorer. (He scored eleven goals in thirteen games.) Rudi was fast and agile with laser passes and accurate shots. Teammates, coaches, and opposing players soon realized that Rudi was special. The next year, Rudi was moved up to the club’s first tier team where he joined his brothers (Gerhard was the goalie) and his former tutor, Nils Molander, who was playing in his last year of professional hockey. Rudi played for Berliner SC (now known as Berliner Schlitschuh-Club) between 1928 and 1933 before joining EHC St. Moritz in the Swiss League (his brothers followed) for the 1933-1934 season. A year later, the Ball brothers moved to Italy and joined a Milan-based club. By 1936, the Winter Olympics were fast approaching and as a Jew in Nazi Germany, Rudi was on the outside looking in.
Rudi Ball (right) takes the puck down the ice in a game at St. Moritz, Switzerland. Photo by anonymous (c. 1928). Ulf May, Schläger, Pucks, und Bodychecks (Munich, 1970).Rudi Ball (center) facing off for Berliner SC. Photo by anonymous (c. December 1930).Berliner SC hockey team in France. Rudi Ball is fifth from left. His brother, Gerhard is second from right. Gustav Jänecke is fourth from right with his arm around Rudi. Photo by anonymous (c. October 1931). Berliner SC image.
The Nuremberg Laws
The Nuremberg Laws were enacted by the Nazis in September 1935. It consisted of two laws: “Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor” and the “German Citizenship Law.” Initially, the laws were aimed at Jews but two months later, the Nazis expanded them to include Romani and Blacks. For international political reasons, Hitler did not enforce the laws until after the 1936 Summer Olympics. (There was a substantial American effort to boycott the games.)
The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor was about Hitler’s desire to sustain the purity of the German people (i.e., Aryan master race).
Marriages between Jews and German citizens was forbidden.
Extramarital relations between Jews and German citizens were forbidden.
Jews were not allowed to employ German female citizens under the age of forty-five as household servants.
Jews were forbidden to fly the German or Nazi flags.
Punishment for violation of any law was prison with hard labor.
The German, or Reich Citizenship Law was enacted to prevent Jews from being German citizens.
Only people with pure German or related blood could be a Reich citizen.
Reich citizens would be issued a certificate confirming their status.
Only a Reich citizen would be afforded full political rights.
One of the classifications outlined under the laws dealt with the definition of who could be considered Jewish. If a person had three or four Jewish grandparents, they were considered by the Nazis to be a “full Jew.” If a person had only one Jewish grandparent (out of four), they were considered to be a Mischlinge of the “second degree” compared to having two Jewish grandparents which would render them a Mischlinge of the “first degree.” A second-degree Mischlinge was not classified by the Nazis as a Jew according to the law. However, there was quite a debate about the status of a first-degree Mischlinge. Hitler finally ruled that someone with two Jewish grandparents would be considered Jewish if they practiced the Jewish faith or was married to a Jewish spouse.
It is likely Rudi would have been considered a first-degree Mischlinge (two Jewish grandparents on his paternal side).
The German National Team and the 1936 Winter Olympics
Rudi and his brothers spent the off seasons in Berlin with their parents. When it came time for Germany to announce its national team, Rudi knew he would not be called up because of his religion. He was correct. However, the number one choice for the team, Gustav Jänecke (1908−1985) knew that without Rudi, the team had no chance of winning a medal like they did four years earlier. (Rudi had played in the 1932 Olympics when Germany took the bronze medal in ice hockey.) When Jänecke, Germany’s top defender, refused to play, the team backed him up. Despite Nazi threats, they held out until Hitler realized his team couldn’t compete without both Jänecke and Ball and it would look bad for the German team to sit out the games. So, he instructed his Reichssportführer, or “Reich Sport Leader,” Hans von Tschammer und Osten (1887−1943) to approach Rudi with their approval for him to play.
Gustave Jänecke (left) in Paris to play a professional tennis match. Photo by anonymous (c. 1932). Agence de presse Mondial Photo-Presse. PD-Author’s life plus 70 years or fewer. Wikimedia Commons.
As an aside and a sad fact, the head of the U.S. Olympic Committee, Avery Brundage (1887−1975), was the featured speaker at a Nazi rally in Madison Square Garden prior to the 1936 Winter Olympics and revealed his antisemitism and racist views. As president of the International Olympic Committee between 1952 and 1972, Brundage earned an infamous reputation as a racist, sexist, and antisemite. He believed Jews and Blacks were not capable of performing at Olympic standards.
Avery Brundage speaking at Madison Square Garden, New York City for “Deutscher Tag” (German Day). Photo by anonymous (4 October 1936). University of Illinois Archives.Aerial view of the Olympiastadion in Berlin. Photo by Wolfgang26 (19 August 2010). PD-CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Unported. Wikimedia Commons.
The Deal with the Devil
Rudi hated Hitler and the Nazis. However, he was passionate about hockey and especially playing with his teammates who supported him. When the Nazi officials confronted him about playing for the national team, Rudi felt obligated to play. However, he had one demand.
Rudi agreed to play in the Olympics under one condition. The Nazi government had to allow his family to leave Germany. It is likely this demand went all the way to Hitler for a decision. Rudi’s family would be given permission to leave if he played in the games. Amazingly, Hitler kept his promise and except for Rudi who stayed behind in Berlin, Leonard Ball and his family were allowed to emigrate to South Africa thereby escaping persecution and likely death in the extermination camps. (Why South Africa? The country had a large immigrant population of Germans.)
Hitler at the 1936 Winter Olympics. Photo by Lucien Aigner (c. February 1936). Corbis. All rights reserved.
After the family was safely gone, Rudi kept his part of the deal and joined the national team. The government was funding the national program since hockey was considered to be the strongest and most popular winter sport in Germany. Hitler knew this and couldn’t stand the thought of winning any medal less than gold. At the time, Canada was the best team in the world and the one to beat in the Olympics.
Adolf Hitler (right) and Rudolf Hess (third from the right) at the 1936 Winter Olympics. Photo by anonymous (6 February 1936). Bundesarchiv, R 8076 Bild-0019/CC-BY-SA 3.0. PD-CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Germany. Wikimedia Commons.The American flag follows the Nazi flag at the opening ceremonies of the 1936 Winter Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936). FPG/2004 Getty Images.
On 5 February 1936 at the Olympiaschanze in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Hitler formally declared the games open in front of 50,000 spectators and a thousand competitors. The German hockey team faced tough preliminary group competition against the United States, Italy, and Switzerland. By beating Italy and Switzerland, it ensured the team moved onto the second group play. This time, the Germans had to play Great Britain, Canada, and Hungary to advance to the medal rounds. Unfortunately, Rudi was injured badly in the win (2-1) over Hungary but managed to score the winning goal. The team drew with Great Britain and lost to Canada without Rudi’s services as he had a broken shoulder, lacerated leg, and a lacerated forehead. Much to Hitler and Goebbel’s dismay, Germany did not advance on points.
Canadian Olympic team passing by the reviewing stand during the opening ceremonies for the 1936 Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936). Corbis. All rights reserved.Germany (left) line up to face the United States (right), going through their pre-match battle cry, in their opening match of the 1936 Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936). Getty Images.1936 Winter Olympic hockey game with Canada (white jerseys) playing the United States (dark jerseys). Canada won the silver medal while the U.S. took bronze. Photo by anonymous (2 February 1936).
Besides getting his family to safety, Rudi made the deal and played because he thought it was important to show the world (and Hitler) that Germans could stand together regardless of their heritage or religion. He wanted to show Hitler that Jews were not an inferior race and that the Führer’s concept of “racial superiority” was a falsehood. Rudi was proud of being German but embarrassed by the Nazi party’s ascension to power and racial theories.
Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels (seated left) and Adolf Hitler (next right) at the 1936 Winter Olympics closing ceremony. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936)).Hitler inspecting troops in Garmisch during the 1936 Winter Olympics. There was a very large military presence during the games. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936). USHMM #21761/Süddeutscher Verlag Bilderdienst, Munich, Germany.
Helene Mayer
Rudi Ball was only one of two German Jews who Hitler allowed to participate in the Olympic games held during 1936. The other was Helene Mayer (1910−1953), a German-born Jew considered to be the greatest female fencer. Mayer moved to the United States in 1935 to escape the tightening restrictions on Jews in Germany. (Helene would have been considered a first-degree Mischlinge.) Despite losing her German citizenship under the Nuremberg Laws, Helene was persuaded by the Nazis to return to compete for Germany in the 1936 Summer Olympics. (Hitler used her participation as evidence of Nazi tolerance toward Jews.) Helene won the silver medal in individual women’s foil. While on the winners’ podium, she gave the Nazi salute. After the games, Helene returned to America and finished a successful fencing career. In 1952, Helene Mayer settled in Germany but a year later, she died of cancer leaving very little evidence of her thoughts on her career and the real reason why she returned to Nazi Germany to participate in Hitler’s Berlin Olympics.
Helene Mayer became one of the first female sporting celebrities when she won fencing gold for Germany as a teenager at the 1928 Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. 1928).
To this day, Helene’s salute on the podium remains controversial. She has been labeled a traitor and opportunist while some consider her story to be tragic. Helene’s family remained in Germany, and she later said that the salute was given to protect her family. (Her father died in 1931 and her brothers were sent to a labor camp where they survived the war.) Helene Mayer’s story is a complicated one whereas Rudi’s story is clear cut.
1936 Summer Olympic medal winners for fencing. Helene Mayer standing on the podium (right) gives the Nazi salute. Photo by anonymous (c. summer 1936). PD-Author’s life plus 70 years or fewer. Wikimedia Commons.
Return to Berliner SC
Rudi was forced by the Nazis to remain in Germany. He eventually returned to Berliner SC and played for the club until 1943 when Hitler suspended all sports. Although Rudi left the city at that point, there wasn’t a day that Rudi was afraid he would be picked up and deported. It is likely the Nazis kept him alive due to his celebrity status and to play hockey which they believed provided entertainment and morale booster to the public. Like other Germans, Rudi was forced to live on food ration cards and as the war neared its end, he suffered along with the other survivors of bombing and brutal Soviet treatment during the final weeks in Berlin.
Germans queue up for food in Berlin. Photo by anonymous (date unknown).
“Hockey Owes Me Nothing”
Gerhard returned to Berlin shortly after the war ended and persuaded his younger brother to play hockey again but this time for SG Eichamp Berlin. By 1948, Rudi’s brothers convinced him to move to South Africa. Hockey was in its infancy in South Africa, but Rudi joined the Johannesburg Tigers for the 1949-50 season. The following year, Rudi moved to the Johannesburg Wolves and at the end of the season, at the age of forty-one, Rudi hung up his skates and retired. That is, until one last time when he played in the All-Star game between South Africa and Europe. Rudi scored four goals and the South Africa all-stars beat their European counterparts 10 to 4.
Rudi spent the remainder of his life in South Africa where he became a well-respected businessman. In 1970, a journalist asked Rudi if he thought hockey owed him more recognition. Rudi responded, “Hockey owes me nothing. I am the one that owes hockey. It saved me and my family from the Holocaust.” Unfortunately, not all of his family survived as he would learn several years after the war.
In 2004, Rudi Ball was posthumously inducted into the International Ice Hockey Hall of Fame.
So, what happened to the jerry cans that Dailley pinched in May 1945? Before he passed away, Dailley donated the cans to the Canadian War Museum in Ottawa.
Next Blog: “The Rochambelles”
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What’s New With Sandy and Stew?
Sandy and I are on a cruise up to Alaska with two of our three children and their families. This is the cruise that was supposed to happen in 2020. Last year would have finally been the time but the grandkids weren’t vaccinated and that was one of the requirements for boarding the ship. So, we decided to take the cruise by ourselves. First time to Alaska and it was great. Never saw a black bear, bald eagle, or panther. That’s okay. We see those critters in Florida all the time.
Thank you to all of you who subscribe to our bi-weekly blogs. It seems there isn’t a day that goes by where we don’t increase our readership. Please let your history buff friends and family members know about our blog site and blogs.
Someone Is Commenting On Our Blogs
Thanks to Nicole C. for reading our blog, The Marvelous Madame Hamelin. Nicole pointed out a spelling error and as always, we’ll go back to the blog and correct it for future readers.
If there is a topic you’d like to see a blog written about, please don’t hesitate to contact me. I love hearing from you so keep those comments coming.
Do you enjoy reading? Do you have a hard time finding the right book in the genre you enjoy? Well, Ben at Shepherd.com has come up with an amazing way to find that book.
Shepherd highlights an author (like me) and one of their books (in our case, it is Where Did They Put the Gestapo Headquarters?). The author is required to review five books in the same genre. So, if a reader is interested say in cooking, they can drill down and find specific books about cooking that have been reviewed by authors in that category. Very simple.
If you like to read, I highly recommend you visit Shepherd.com. If you do, please let me know what you think and I will forward Ben any suggestions or comments you might have.
Stewart Ross’ book is full of interesting documents and research, it put you well on the tracks of Marie Antoinette, Danton, Robespierre and many more, whether in Paris or in Versailles, extremely interesting and easy to read!
Raphaelle Crevet | Certified Tour Guide, Paris, France
“Informative and entertaining, Stew Ross’ newest work evokes a difficult and frightening time in the history of the City of Light. The detailed descriptions of sites such as the Vél’ d’hiv’ or Gestapo headquarters reminds us of the choices people made during those years.”
Cynthia Bisson, PhD, Professor of History, Belmont University, French Resistant Expert
