Many of us are familiar with the story of Jesse Owens (1913-1980) winning four gold medals at the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin. Adolph Hitler was in the stands and watched Jesse and his teammates beat out German athletes in various track and field events. After watching African Americans step up to the victor’s stand on day one, Hitler refused to shake hands with anyone other than a German. Told it was all or nothing ⏤ he had to either shake everyone’s hand or no one ⏤ Hitler chose the latter. So, every day before the award ceremonies began, Hitler left the stadium. Watch the video clip “Jesse Owens at the Berlin Olympics” in 1936 here.
Luz Long, German athlete saluting Hitler (right), on the winners stand at the 1936 Berlin Olympics. Jesse Owens (left) on the podium after winning the gold medal. Photo by anonymous (c. August 1936). Bundesarchiv Bild 183-G00630, Sommerolympiade, Siegerehrung Weitsprung. PD-CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Germany. Wikimedia Commons.
This is only one of many stories which took place in the latter part of the 1930s when German athletes competed against African Americans in sports such as boxing (Schmeling vs. Louis) and track and field (Owens and others). It was a time when German nationalism was on the rise and Hitler was promoting his master-race theories.
It wasn’t only African American athletes who were embarrassing Hitler and his regime. In the late 1930s, motorsports took on the Führer and won. Two Formula One (F1) race car drivers, a Jewish Frenchman and an American woman, financed, built, and raced cars to compete with the Nazis’ Mercedes-Benz team and they beat Hitler at his own game. Read More Outpacing Hitler and the Nazis
An “enabler” is someone who enables another to achieve an end. The term is quite often used in the context of enabling another to persist in self-destructive behavior by providing excuses or by making it possible to avoid the consequences of such behavior.
I think we would all agree that Adolph Hitler was the greatest mass murderer in the history of mankind (Stalin wasn’t too far behind him). Concentration camp deaths are estimated to be eleven million of which, six million were Jews. He was the leader who fomented the hatred and then handed off the problem solving to the first layer of senior Nazi leaders.
In the context of the Nazis’ systematic killing machine, there are two broad groups of enablers: those who “did it” and those who “made it possible.” According to Bartrop and Grimm in their book, Perpetrating the Holocaust, there are the leaders (e.g., Heinrich Himmler, Alfred Rosenberg, Hans Frank, Hermann Göring, Josef Goebbels, and Albert Speer to name a few) and then there are the enablers.
The vast scope of murders would never have been achieved without the enthusiastic support of hundreds of thousands of men and women over a period of twelve years. They participated in developing the framework, devising the details, and then implementing the process. Some would carry out the administration of the plan while another set of individuals would be responsible for executing the plan on a day-to-day basis. Other enablers included collaborators (e.g., not only individuals but collaborationist governments of occupied countries such as France and Norway) and the German industrialists.
I believe there were basically four layers of enablers. The first layer was the senior Nazi leaders reporting directly to Hitler. Along with Hitler, many of these men committed suicide before justice caught up to them (e.g. Himmler and Goebbels). Others were put on trial (e.g., Ernst Kaltenbrunner, Speer, and Rosenberg) and unfortunately, too many were never brought to justice. The first layer delegated the formation of details and final implementation to a second layer of enablers (e.g., Adolf Eichmann and Reinhard Heydrich). Then there was the third layer. These were the men and women who were responsible for the administration and ultimately, ensuring the end result met senior Nazi leaders’ expectations. They were the camp commandants, the guards, SS mobile execution units known as the Einsatzgruppen, and various Nazi bureaucratic administration officials in Berlin. Key collaborationists fell into the third layer and included men like Pierre Laval and Marshal Pétain of the French Vichy government as well as Ante Pavelić (1889-1959), leader of the fascist paramilitary Ustaše in Croatia.
SS-Einsatzgruppen mass murder. Photo by anonymous (date unknown).The body of Ernst Kaltenbrunner after his execution, 16 October 1946. Photo by anonymous (16 October 1946). PD-U.S. Government. Wikimedia Commons.
The fourth layer or, “those who made it possible” included the owners, executives, and managers of companies such as I.G. Farben which produced Zyklon B, the gas used in the extermination camps. They were no less guilty than the sadistic camp commander or brutal guard. The industrialists funded the Nazi party when it was broke and gave it the financial legs to take power. These are the people who fueled the Nazi war machine in part by appropriating Jewish businesses as well as using forced slave labor. Read More Hitler’s Enablers – Part One – Wannsee Conference
Mr. Ross brings the streets of Paris to life, making it possible for you to stand on the very spots where the grand and tragic events of the French Revolution took place. If you are looking for more than just the typical tourist experience in Paris, then this book is must reading!
Dan Carpenter | Historian & Author
Stewart Ross’ book is full of interesting documents and research, it put you well on the tracks of Marie Antoinette, Danton, Robespierre and many more, whether in Paris or in Versailles, extremely interesting and easy to read!
Raphaelle Crevet | Certified Tour Guide, Paris, France
