Posted on July 15, 2023 November 16, 2023

Rudi and His Deal with the Devil

Many people are familiar with the 1936 Summer Olympics held in Berlin’s Olympiastadion. That was the Olympics where Jesse Owens won the gold medal in track in front of Adolf Hitler and senior Nazi officials. However, did you know that Germany also hosted the 1936 Winter Olympics? (The last time both winter and summer games were held in the same country in the same year.) Somehow, Hitler obtained a “two-fer” that year for the purpose of showcasing his National Socialism party to the world.

The logo for the 1936 Winter Olympics. Photo by anonymous (date unknown). PD-Life of the author plus 70 years. Wikimedia Commons.

The Olympiastadion in Berlin, site of the 1936 Summer Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. 1936). Bundesarchiv, Bild 183-R82532/CC-BY-SA 3.0. PD-CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Germany. Wikimedia Commons.

I recently wrote a blog about a Norwegian footballer who competed in the 1936 Summer Olympics (click here to read the blog, Two Footballers and a War). Today, you will be introduced to another 1936 Olympian. This time our story is about a hockey player who played for the German national team in the Winter Olympics. What is remarkable is that Rudi was Jewish and Hitler allowed him to participate.

Did You Know?

Did you know that in 1929 the United States Navy sent Joseph Rochefort and two other young officers to Japan for three years to become fluent in the language and culture? Did the navy foresee the future conflict with Japan or was it just dumb luck? For Capt. Rochefort it was the foundation that he and his team of codebreakers needed to determine if they had enough evidence from Japanese radio messages to convince Adm. Chester Nimitz that the emperor’s naval fleet was enroute to attack Midway Island. Unfortunately, Nimitz and his staff did not believe Rochefort. That is, until the codebreakers came up with a plan to change the admiral’s mind.

Lt. Joseph Rochefort. Photo by anonymous (15 September 1934). National Security Agency.

The Battle of Midway took place between 4−7 June 1942, and it was the turning point in the Pacific war. Six months after their December 1941 surprise attack on Pearl Harbor and Col. Doolittle’s 18 April 1942 air raid on Tokyo, the Japanese navy under admirals Yamamoto, Nagumo, and Kondō planned a trap for U.S. aircraft carriers. The admirals hoped to lure the carriers to the Coral Sea where their navy would defeat the American navy and clear the way for attacks on Midway, Fiji, Samoa, and Hawaii. During the four-day battle, the Japanese lost four aircraft carriers and a heavy cruiser. The Americans lost the carrier Yorktown and a destroyer. After the U.S. victory, the Japanese were never able to recover from nor replace its loss of ships. Additionally, Yamamoto abandoned his plan to invade Midway.

Lt. Col. James Doolittle performs a full-throttle takeoff from the USS Hornet 650 miles from Japan. Photo by anonymous (18 April 1942). PD-U.S. Government. Wikimedia Commons.

Rochefort and his men devised a plan to convince Nimitz their intelligence was correct. They had the U.S. base in Midway send out a message that the Midway desalination system was failing. The Japanese intercepted the message and immediately provided desalting materials to their ships. After Rochefort’s team decoded this information, it proved to Nimitz that Midway was the target and Nimitz’s fleet was waiting to meet the Japanese flotilla. Rochefort and his codebreakers were vindicated. Unfortunately, Rochefort was never given credit for his role in the Midway victory despite being proposed for the Distinguished Service Medal. However, President Reagan posthumously awarded Rochefort with the medal forty-four years after the Battle of Midway.

The USS Yorktown (CV-5) burning after the first attack by Japanese dive bombers during the Battle of Midway. Photo by anonymous (4 June 1942). U.S. Navy Naval History and Heritage Command. PD-U.S. Government. Wikimedia Commons.

Sometimes it takes a while to correct a wrong.

The Führerbunker

After driving into what was left of Berlin three days after Hitler killed himself in the Führerbunker on 30 April 1945, Maj. Gordon Dailley (1911−1989) and Ian Gordon, a British war correspondent and former hockey journalist, found themselves in front of the bunker entrance. There they found several empty jerry cans laying in a shallow trench. They knew Hitler was dead and assumed the fuel in the cans was used to burn the dictator’s body. While no one was looking, they took the cans as souvenirs.

Shallow trench outside the Führerbunker in the garden of the Reich Chancelllery where the bodies of Hitler and Eva Braun were burned. Where are the jerry cans? Photo by William Vandivert (c. May 1945). Life Pictures/Shutterstock.

Outside the entrance to the Führerbunker. The shallow trench in the foreground is presumably where the bodies of Hitler and Eva Braun were burned. Photo by William Vandivert (c. May 1945). Life Pictures/Shutterstock.

Before the war, Canadian-born Dailley had been an ice hockey player who played for Great Britain in international competitions including the 1936 Winter Olympics. (Dailley’s national hockey team won the gold medal, and it was Great Britain’s only gold medal.)

Gordon Dailley playing hockey (left) and later in life as the founder of the African Lion Safari in Cambridge, Ontario, Canada. Photos by anonymous (dates unknown).

After their visit to the former Führerbunker, Dailley and Gordon drove through the bombed-out streets of Berlin. German citizens who survived the savage fighting by the Soviet soldiers and bombs were queuing in the streets for food that was being passed out by Allied troops. As they passed by one line, Dailley spotted a familiar face. Standing in line was a man whom Dailley faced nine years earlier on the rink at the Winter Olympics. He knew Rudi Ball was Jewish but how on earth did he survive the war?

Let’s Meet Rudi Ball

Rudolf Victor “Rudi” Ball (1911−1975) was born in Berlin to a wealthy Jewish textile merchant. His mother was a Lithuanian Christian and Rudi was the youngest of three boys. Rudi’s brothers, Gerhard (1903−1982) and Heinz (1907−1966), played hockey but Rudi did not show any interest in the sport but rather concentrated on academic studies. However, by the time he was fifteen, Rudi saw his brothers play against a Canadian, Blake Wilson. For some reason, Wilson’s style of play stoked Rudi’s interest in hockey and he decided to play. One thing concerned him: Rudi was only 5’4” and weighed 140 pounds. His father bought him skates and paid for private lessons with the Swedish hockey player, Nils Molander (1889−1974). As Rudi studied the game, he became convinced his size could be used to his advantage.

Ball family photo. From left to right: Heinz, Rudi, father Leonard, and Gerhard. Photo by anonymous (c. 1929). Birger Nordmark.

Nils Molander. Photo by anonymous (2 January 1914). Agence Rol. PD-95 years or fewer since publication. Wikimedia Commons.

Professional Hockey

Seventeen-year-old Rudi Ball was selected to play for the Berliner SC second tier team for the 1927-28 season. He quickly became their top scorer. (He scored eleven goals in thirteen games.) Rudi was fast and agile with laser passes and accurate shots. Teammates, coaches, and opposing players soon realized that Rudi was special. The next year, Rudi was moved up to the club’s first tier team where he joined his brothers (Gerhard was the goalie) and his former tutor, Nils Molander, who was playing in his last year of professional hockey. Rudi played for Berliner SC (now known as Berliner Schlitschuh-Club) between 1928 and 1933 before joining EHC St. Moritz in the Swiss League (his brothers followed) for the 1933-1934 season. A year later, the Ball brothers moved to Italy and joined a Milan-based club. By 1936, the Winter Olympics were fast approaching and as a Jew in Nazi Germany, Rudi was on the outside looking in.

Rudi Ball (right) takes the puck down the ice in a game at St. Moritz, Switzerland. Photo by anonymous (c. 1928). Ulf May, Schläger, Pucks, und Bodychecks (Munich, 1970).

Rudi Ball (center) facing off for Berliner SC. Photo by anonymous (c. December 1930).

Berliner SC hockey team in France. Rudi Ball is fifth from left. His brother, Gerhard is second from right. Gustav Jänecke is fourth from right with his arm around Rudi. Photo by anonymous (c. October 1931). Berliner SC image.

The Nuremberg Laws

The Nuremberg Laws were enacted by the Nazis in September 1935. It consisted of two laws: “Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor” and the “German Citizenship Law.” Initially, the laws were aimed at Jews but two months later, the Nazis expanded them to include Romani and Blacks. For international political reasons, Hitler did not enforce the laws until after the 1936 Summer Olympics. (There was a substantial American effort to boycott the games.)

The Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor was about Hitler’s desire to sustain the purity of the German people (i.e., Aryan master race).

Marriages between Jews and German citizens was forbidden.
Extramarital relations between Jews and German citizens were forbidden.
Jews were not allowed to employ German female citizens under the age of forty-five as household servants.
Jews were forbidden to fly the German or Nazi flags.
Punishment for violation of any law was prison with hard labor.

The German, or Reich Citizenship Law was enacted to prevent Jews from being German citizens.

Only people with pure German or related blood could be a Reich citizen.
Reich citizens would be issued a certificate confirming their status.
Only a Reich citizen would be afforded full political rights.

One of the classifications outlined under the laws dealt with the definition of who could be considered Jewish. If a person had three or four Jewish grandparents, they were considered by the Nazis to be a “full Jew.” If a person had only one Jewish grandparent (out of four), they were considered to be a Mischlinge of the “second degree” compared to having two Jewish grandparents which would render them a Mischlinge of the “first degree.” A second-degree Mischlinge was not classified by the Nazis as a Jew according to the law. However, there was quite a debate about the status of a first-degree Mischlinge. Hitler finally ruled that someone with two Jewish grandparents would be considered Jewish if they practiced the Jewish faith or was married to a Jewish spouse.

It is likely Rudi would have been considered a first-degree Mischlinge (two Jewish grandparents on his paternal side).

The German National Team and the 1936 Winter Olympics

Rudi and his brothers spent the off seasons in Berlin with their parents. When it came time for Germany to announce its national team, Rudi knew he would not be called up because of his religion. He was correct. However, the number one choice for the team, Gustav Jänecke (1908−1985) knew that without Rudi, the team had no chance of winning a medal like they did four years earlier. (Rudi had played in the 1932 Olympics when Germany took the bronze medal in ice hockey.) When Jänecke, Germany’s top defender, refused to play, the team backed him up. Despite Nazi threats, they held out until Hitler realized his team couldn’t compete without both Jänecke and Ball and it would look bad for the German team to sit out the games. So, he instructed his Reichssportführer, or “Reich Sport Leader,” Hans von Tschammer und Osten (1887−1943) to approach Rudi with their approval for him to play.

Gustave Jänecke (left) in Paris to play a professional tennis match. Photo by anonymous (c. 1932). Agence de presse Mondial Photo-Presse. PD-Author’s life plus 70 years or fewer. Wikimedia Commons.

As an aside and a sad fact, the head of the U.S. Olympic Committee, Avery Brundage (1887−1975), was the featured speaker at a Nazi rally in Madison Square Garden prior to the 1936 Winter Olympics and revealed his antisemitism and racist views. As president of the International Olympic Committee between 1952 and 1972, Brundage earned an infamous reputation as a racist, sexist, and antisemite. He believed Jews and Blacks were not capable of performing at Olympic standards.

Avery Brundage speaking at Madison Square Garden, New York City for “Deutscher Tag” (German Day). Photo by anonymous (4 October 1936). University of Illinois Archives.

Aerial view of the Olympiastadion in Berlin. Photo by Wolfgang26 (19 August 2010). PD-CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Unported. Wikimedia Commons.

The Deal with the Devil

Rudi hated Hitler and the Nazis. However, he was passionate about hockey and especially playing with his teammates who supported him. When the Nazi officials confronted him about playing for the national team, Rudi felt obligated to play. However, he had one demand.

Rudi agreed to play in the Olympics under one condition. The Nazi government had to allow his family to leave Germany. It is likely this demand went all the way to Hitler for a decision. Rudi’s family would be given permission to leave if he played in the games. Amazingly, Hitler kept his promise and except for Rudi who stayed behind in Berlin, Leonard Ball and his family were allowed to emigrate to South Africa thereby escaping persecution and likely death in the extermination camps. (Why South Africa? The country had a large immigrant population of Germans.)

Hitler at the 1936 Winter Olympics. Photo by Lucien Aigner (c. February 1936). Corbis. All rights reserved.

After the family was safely gone, Rudi kept his part of the deal and joined the national team. The government was funding the national program since hockey was considered to be the strongest and most popular winter sport in Germany. Hitler knew this and couldn’t stand the thought of winning any medal less than gold. At the time, Canada was the best team in the world and the one to beat in the Olympics.

Adolf Hitler (right) and Rudolf Hess (third from the right) at the 1936 Winter Olympics. Photo by anonymous (6 February 1936). Bundesarchiv, R 8076 Bild-0019/CC-BY-SA 3.0. PD-CCA-Share Alike 3.0 Germany. Wikimedia Commons.

The American flag follows the Nazi flag at the opening ceremonies of the 1936 Winter Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936). FPG/2004 Getty Images.

On 5 February 1936 at the Olympiaschanze in Garmisch-Partenkirchen, Hitler formally declared the games open in front of 50,000 spectators and a thousand competitors. The German hockey team faced tough preliminary group competition against the United States, Italy, and Switzerland. By beating Italy and Switzerland, it ensured the team moved onto the second group play. This time, the Germans had to play Great Britain, Canada, and Hungary to advance to the medal rounds. Unfortunately, Rudi was injured badly in the win (2-1) over Hungary but managed to score the winning goal. The team drew with Great Britain and lost to Canada without Rudi’s services as he had a broken shoulder, lacerated leg, and a lacerated forehead. Much to Hitler and Goebbel’s dismay, Germany did not advance on points.

Canadian Olympic team passing by the reviewing stand during the opening ceremonies for the 1936 Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936). Corbis. All rights reserved.

Germany (left) line up to face the United States (right), going through their pre-match battle cry, in their opening match of the 1936 Olympics. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936). Getty Images.

1936 Winter Olympic hockey game with Canada (white jerseys) playing the United States (dark jerseys). Canada won the silver medal while the U.S. took bronze. Photo by anonymous (2 February 1936).

Besides getting his family to safety, Rudi made the deal and played because he thought it was important to show the world (and Hitler) that Germans could stand together regardless of their heritage or religion. He wanted to show Hitler that Jews were not an inferior race and that the Führer’s concept of “racial superiority” was a falsehood. Rudi was proud of being German but embarrassed by the Nazi party’s ascension to power and racial theories.

Nazi propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels (seated left) and Adolf Hitler (next right) at the 1936 Winter Olympics closing ceremony. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936)).

Hitler inspecting troops in Garmisch during the 1936 Winter Olympics. There was a very large military presence during the games. Photo by anonymous (c. February 1936). USHMM #21761/Süddeutscher Verlag Bilderdienst, Munich, Germany.

Helene Mayer

Rudi Ball was only one of two German Jews who Hitler allowed to participate in the Olympic games held during 1936. The other was Helene Mayer (1910−1953), a German-born Jew considered to be the greatest female fencer. Mayer moved to the United States in 1935 to escape the tightening restrictions on Jews in Germany. (Helene would have been considered a first-degree Mischlinge.) Despite losing her German citizenship under the Nuremberg Laws, Helene was persuaded by the Nazis to return to compete for Germany in the 1936 Summer Olympics. (Hitler used her participation as evidence of Nazi tolerance toward Jews.) Helene won the silver medal in individual women’s foil. While on the winners’ podium, she gave the Nazi salute. After the games, Helene returned to America and finished a successful fencing career. In 1952, Helene Mayer settled in Germany but a year later, she died of cancer leaving very little evidence of her thoughts on her career and the real reason why she returned to Nazi Germany to participate in Hitler’s Berlin Olympics.

To this day, Helene’s salute on the podium remains controversial. She has been labeled a traitor and opportunist while some consider her story to be tragic. Helene’s family remained in Germany, and she later said that the salute was given to protect her family. (Her father died in 1931 and her brothers were sent to a labor camp where they survived the war.) Helene Mayer’s story is a complicated one whereas Rudi’s story is clear cut.

1936 Summer Olympic medal winners for fencing. Helene Mayer standing on the podium (right) gives the Nazi salute. Photo by anonymous (c. summer 1936). PD-Author’s life plus 70 years or fewer. Wikimedia Commons.

Return to Berliner SC

Rudi was forced by the Nazis to remain in Germany. He eventually returned to Berliner SC and played for the club until 1943 when Hitler suspended all sports. Although Rudi left the city at that point, there wasn’t a day that Rudi was afraid he would be picked up and deported. It is likely the Nazis kept him alive due to his celebrity status and to play hockey which they believed provided entertainment and morale booster to the public. Like other Germans, Rudi was forced to live on food ration cards and as the war neared its end, he suffered along with the other survivors of bombing and brutal Soviet treatment during the final weeks in Berlin.

Germans queue up for food in Berlin. Photo by anonymous (date unknown).

“Hockey Owes Me Nothing”

Gerhard returned to Berlin shortly after the war ended and persuaded his younger brother to play hockey again but this time for SG Eichamp Berlin. By 1948, Rudi’s brothers convinced him to move to South Africa. Hockey was in its infancy in South Africa, but Rudi joined the Johannesburg Tigers for the 1949-50 season. The following year, Rudi moved to the Johannesburg Wolves and at the end of the season, at the age of forty-one, Rudi hung up his skates and retired. That is, until one last time when he played in the All-Star game between South Africa and Europe. Rudi scored four goals and the South Africa all-stars beat their European counterparts 10 to 4.

Rudi spent the remainder of his life in South Africa where he became a well-respected businessman. In 1970, a journalist asked Rudi if he thought hockey owed him more recognition. Rudi responded, “Hockey owes me nothing. I am the one that owes hockey. It saved me and my family from the Holocaust.” Unfortunately, not all of his family survived as he would learn several years after the war.

In 2004, Rudi Ball was posthumously inducted into the International Ice Hockey Hall of Fame.

So, what happened to the jerry cans that Dailley pinched in May 1945? Before he passed away, Dailley donated the cans to the Canadian War Museum in Ottawa.

Next Blog: “The Rochambelles”

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★ Read and Learn More About Today’s Topic ★

Frye, Wayne J. How Hockey Saved a Jew from the Holocaust: The Rudi Ball Story. Ladysmith, BC: Peninsula Publishing, 2011.

Haywood, Rob. Rudi Ball: The Jewish ice hockey star who represented and survived Nazi Germany. BBC, 7 June 2023. Click here to read the article.

Mogulof, Milly. Foiled: Hitler’s Jewish Olympian: the Helene Mayer Story. Bandon, OR: RDR Books, 2001.

Moorhouse, Roger. Berlin at War. New York: Basic Books, 2010.

Rigg, Bryan Mark. Hitler’s Jewish Soldiers: The Untold Story of Nazi Racial Laws and Men of Jewish Descent in the German Military. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas, 2002.

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Walks Through History

Posted on May 6, 2023 November 16, 2023

Two Footballers and a War

A while ago, I wrote a blog about a French footballer who was a rather despicable human being (click here to read the blog, Les Bleus, Le Collabo et L’exécution). Today, we will discuss two other footballers, one was Norwegian while the other was German. During the interwar period, Asbjørn Halvorsen and Otto Fritz Harder played together for the same German football club in Hamburg.

Asbjørn Halvorsen and Otto Harder — Asbjørn Halvorsen (left) and Otto Harder (right). Photo by anonymous (date unknown). Halvorsen: Norway National Archives.

As we will see, during World War II, these two men were on different teams and one of them would be subjected to the brutality brought on by the other.

Did You Know?

Did you know that the Napoléonic Code prohibited women from owning businesses in France without the permission of their father or husband? There was one exemption: widows. This created a loophole for three champagnes many of us enjoy today: Veuve Clicquot, Champagne Pommery, and Champagne Bollinger. (The French word for widow is Veuve.)

Veuve Clicquot Champagne Bottle — Veuve Clicquot. Photo by David Adam Kess (15 June 2016). PD-CCA-Share Alike 4.0 International. Wikimedia Commons.

François Clicquot died in 1805 leaving his 27-year-old widow, Barbe-Nicole Clicquot-Ponsardin, with the responsibility of running the family’s small textile and wine business. Rather than selling the business and retiring to the salons, Barbe-Nicole asked her father-in-law for a rather substantial amount of money to expand the business. Remarkably, he agreed. Champagne had a rather dubious reputation at the time since it was the preferred drink at parties thrown by the royals and nobility. (You can imagine some of the outcomes.) So, Barbe-Nicole decided to add “Veuve” to the name of the champagne. Doing so gave the champagne a certain amount of dignity thus overcoming the debauchery image. She grew the business but, on several occasions, it almost reached the point of bankruptcy. One such instance occurred in 1814 during the Napoléonic Wars when many European borders, including Russia, were closed. Barbe-Nicole decided to run the Russian blockade because she knew if her champagne got into Russia before her arch-competitor, Jean-Remy Moët, Veuve Clicquot would become the dominant player in that space. It was a huge risk because of the weather and possible confiscation of the inventory. However, everything went as planned and within ninety-days, Barbe-Nicole’s champagne was king. She became known in Russia as the “Widow.” Barbe-Nicole went on to become an innovative winemaker and extremely successful.

Portrait of Madame Clicquot and her great-granddaughter. Painting by Léon Cogniet (c. 1860−1862). Château de Brissac. PD-Author’s life plus 100 years or fewer. Wikimedia Commons.

In 1858, Louise Pommery’s husband died, and she took over Pommery et Greno, the champagne house her deceased husband co-founded two years earlier. While Barbe-Nicole conquered the Russian market, Louise set her sights on England. Champagne was very sweet with a high sugar content. Louise knew the English had a palette for a drier taste, so she modified the formula in 1874 to create a dry, fresh, and lively taste. It was a hit, and her brut champagne took over the English market.

Jacques Bollinger passed away in 1941 and his widow, Lily Bollinger, took over Bollinger Champagne. By the mid-1960s, Lily developed new techniques and a “new” champagne was born. Today, Bollinger is one of the most sought-after champagnes.

None of these pioneering women remarried. It is likely their choice was based on the fact they would lose their independence, legal status, and be required to turn the business over to their new husband. Gen. Charles de Gaulle gave French women the right to vote but it wasn’t until 1965 that they were granted full rights to employment, banking, and asset management.

Let’s Meet Asbjørn Halvorsen

Asbjørn Halvorsen (1899−1955) was born in Sarpsborg, Norway. He eventually became a ship broker in Hamburg, Germany and married a German woman. However, Asbjørn is best remembered for his football career, both in Norway and Germany. What is forgotten (or not spoken about) are the years he spent in Nazi concentration camps.

While living in Norway, the 18-year-old played center-half for Sarpsborg FK, a Norwegian professional football club. He starred at Sarpsborg FK for five years before moving to Germany and playing for Hamburg Sport-Verein, a German professional football club that won the German league in 1923 and 1928. Beginning in 1918, Asbjørn played for and captained the Norwegian national football team, accumulating nineteen caps (i.e., international appearances). His nineteenth and last international game for Norway was in 1923, coincidentally, against Germany in Hamburg.

The Norwegian national football team at the 1920 Olympics. Asbjørn Halvorsen is standing, fourth from right. Photo by anonymous (29 August 1920). Anders Beer Wilse/Norwegian Museum of Cultural History. PD-Norway50. Wikimedia Commons.

Hamburger S.V. football club. Holding the wreath are Otto Harder (left) and Asbjørn Halvorsen (right). Photo by anonymous (date unknown). https://www.vg.no

Returning to Norway in 1933, Halvorsen worked for the Norwegian Football Association (NFF). This position required him to head up the national team’s selection committee (players and coaches) and in the years prior to World War II, Halvorsen was the coach of Norway’s national team. Under his leadership, Norway won the bronze medal at the 1936 Olympics (held in Berlin) and qualified for the 1938 World Cup (the last world tournament until 1950). It wouldn’t be until 1994 that Norway would qualify for another World Cup.

Let’s Meet Otto Fritz Harder

Otto Fritz (“Tull”) Harder (1892−1956) was born in Braunschweig, Germany. Like many other talented athletes, Otto was discovered early on for his football talents. He played for Eintracht Braunschweig, the main football club in the city, between 1909 and 1912. Although a very popular player with the fans, Otto did not get much playing time and in 1912, signed with the Hamburger Sport-Verein club and played there until 1931. Otto’s last professional football club was Victoria Hamburg where he retired in 1934. Otto accumulated fifteen caps playing for the German national team between 1914 and 1926.

Hamburger S.V. (HSV) was formed in 1887 and is the only team to play in the modern Bundesliga league since its inception in 1963. The club played in the top tier until the team was relegated to Bundesliga 2 after a disastrous 2017-2018 season. Ever since 1977 Hamburger S.V. has had a close affiliation with the Rangers, a top-tier Scottish football club. HSV’s fans visited Ranger games and modeled their new fan club on the Rangers’s fan club.

The logo of the Hamburger S.V. football club. Photo by anonymous (c. 2011). Hamburger S.V. PD-Does not meet the threshold of originality. Wikimedia Commons.

Interwar Period

Just before Halvorsen retired from HSV, a testimonial game was held to honor his time with the club. When the Nazi salute was ordered, Halvorsen was the only member of the team to keep his arm at his side. Three years later, Halvorsen and his national team were in Berlin’s Poststadion for the quarterfinals of the 1936 Olympics against Hitler’s German national team. As Hitler watched (and fumed), Norway beat the Germans 2 to 0 and days later, won their first and only international football award, the bronze medal. (Norway went on to lose to Italy, the eventual winner of the gold medal.)

Adolf Hitler, Joseph Goebbels ), and senior Nazi officials attending the quarter-final of the 1936 Olympic games in Berlin — Adolf Hitler (center wearing military cap), Joseph Goebbels (to Hitler’s immediate right), and senior Nazi officials attending the quarter-final of the 1936 Olympic games in Berlin. They are watching Norway play Germany. Norway won 2-0 and Hitler stormed out of the stadium. Photo by anonymous (c. Summer 1936).

On a September day in 1933, Halvorsen was standing on the rail platform at the Hamburg train station waiting to board his rail car for the journey back to Norway. Harder was rushing to the station to say goodbye to his former teammate. Halvorsen was a very creative footballer and responsible for many of Tull’s clinical finishes into the back of the net. Tull wanted very much to see his old friend off to thank him and wish him well for the next phase of his life. Germany was in the early stage of the Third Reich and neither man knew the horrors that awaited them and the world.

While Halvorsen continued his football career albeit in coaching and administration, Harder joined the Nazi party in 1932 and the following year, joined the Schutzstaffel (SS). Originally formed as Hitler’s bodyguard unit, the SS became one of the Nazis’ instruments of terror along with the Gestapo and Sicherheitsdienst. The SS was responsible for running the concentration and extermination camps, the Einsatzgruppen mobile death squads, and the wholescale massacres of civilians. After the war, the SS was declared a criminal organization and its members, including Otto Harder, were automatically deemed to be criminals due to the crimes against humanity they committed.

World War II and Occupation

Harder’s first assignment in the SS was guarding inmates at KZ Sachsenhausen, north of Berlin. In 1939, he was transferred to KZ Neuengamme where he worked in the main camp as an administrator.

On 8/9 April 1940, the German army invaded Norway. The Norwegian royal family fled to London to form a government-in-exile. The German occupying forces were commanded by Gen. Nikolaus von Falkenhorst (1885−1968) and quickly demanded that the Football Association capitulate to German control. Halvorsen wrote a letter of protest to German high command and later that year, he tried to prevent Nazi flags from being flown at the Norwegian Cup final. Under Halvorsen’s leadership, sports organizations went underground and became important resistance groups. Their activities included boycotts and sabotage. Unfortunately, Halvorsen’s activities eventually caught up to him.

KZ Neuengamme

In August 1942, a small basement in an Oslo building was raided and searched by the Germans. They found a printing press used to publish resistance newspapers. It was a resistance operation supported by Halvorsen and he was immediately arrested. For one year, the former footballer was imprisoned in Bærum, Norway at the Grini detention camp, but he knew eventual deportation to Germany would be his fate.

Grini was a Nazi concentration camp located outside Oslo, Norway. Photo by anonymous (c. 1941). Royal Norwegian Information Service. PD-U.S. Government. Wikimedia Commons.

His premonition was correct. Deported under Hitler’s directive, Nacht und Nebel, Halvorsen arrived at KZ Natzweiler-Struthof in France (click here to read the blog, Night and Fog). As a prisoner under the Nacht und Nebel directive (NN), Halvorsen was to be killed without any leaving any trace of his existence. Natzweiler was one of the primary destinations for NN prisoners and it was a camp where inmates were expected to die from abuse and overwork in the quarry. Only about 266 of the 504 Norwegian prisoners at Natzweiler survived and Halvorsen was one of them. As a former footballer on a German club team, many of the guards remembered Halvorsen and extended special treatment (which he shared with other inmates).

In August 1944, Otto Harder was promoted to SS-Untersturmführer (i.e., second lieutenant) and given command of KZ Hannover-Stöcken (Continental), a subcamp of KZ Neuengamme. This subcamp was established for the purpose of providing forced labor to Continental-Grummiwer AG, a rubber factory located in Stöken. Harder commanded sixty SS men at the camp and he was directly responsible for the inhumane living conditions and brutal treatment of the prisoners including executions. It is believed that about four hundred prisoners died at the Stöcken subcamp. On 30 November 1944, Harder was ordered to evacuate the camp and move everything to KZ Hannover-Ahlem, another Neuengamme subcamp located about three miles from Stöken. This time, the camp’s inmates were supplied to the local sugar factory as forced labor.

KZ Hannover-Stöcken concentration camp 1945 — KZ Hannover-Stöcken concentration camp, a subcamp of KZ Neuengamme. Photo by anonymous (c. April 1945).

In September 1944, Halvorsen was relocated to KZ Neckarelz I, a subcamp of Natzweiler. The prisoners were housed in a former school building and forced to work in the nearby gypsum mines for the Daimler-Benz company. The following April, Halvorsen was transferred once again. He arrived at Neuengamme on the outskirts of Hamburg but his old teammate, Otto Harder, had left his position only a few months earlier. By this time, Halvorsen was very sick and fighting famine, epidemic typhus, pneumonia, and other illnesses. The evacuation of Neuengamme’s subcamps began in March 1945 with prisoners forced to march to other concentration camps. The main camp was evacuated on 2 May 1945 and the next day, British troops arrived at the camp. Despite the SS trying to destroy incriminating evidence, the documented death toll at Neuengamme was more than forty-two thousand in addition to the thousands of atrocities (including medical experiments on children) committed at the camp by the Nazis.

The elementary school in Neckarelz used as part of the concentration subcamp. Photo by Heuberger (date unknown).

Postwar

Harder was arrested by the Allies and became one of the defendants in the Curio-Haus Trial between 16 April and 6 May 1947. As the former commander of KZ Hannover-Ahlem, Harder was charged by the British military tribunal in Hamburg with crimes against humanity. He was found guilty and sentenced to fifteen years in prison. Harder only served four years in Werl prison before being released. He died about five years later. It is unlikely that Harder and Halvorsen ever saw one another again after their farewell meeting on the rail station platform in 1933.

Otto Harder’s mug shot after his arrest 1947 — Otto Harder’s mug shot after his arrest. Photo by anonymous (c. 1947). National Archives. PD-Expired copyright. Wikimedia Commons.

Ahlem Concentration Camp 1945 — Sick prisoners left behind at the Ahlem concentration camp. They escaped the death march and are seen smiling on the day the camp was liberated by American troops. Photo by anonymous (10 April 1945). United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. PD-U.S. Government.

Werl Prison Entrance — Entrance to Werl Prison located in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia, east of Dortmund, Germany. The prison was populated with more than 5,300 French POWs when it was liberated on 7 April 1945. The prison was used by the British to house Nazi war criminals after their convictions of war crimes and crimes against humanity. The last two former Nazi inmates were released in 1957. Photo by anonymous (c. 1940s).

Halvorsen was rescued by the Red Cross in April 1945. The Norwegian patriot was so weak that he could not be transported by the buses. Halvorsen did survive and made his way to Oslo in late May where he continued his recuperation. A year after his release, he was interviewed and said, “Starving is the cruelest thing. The sucking in the stomach is nearly unbearable and we did the most incredible things to numb the ache.”

Asbjørn Halvorsen returned as the Norwegian Football Association’s general secretary and is credited with setting up a new league system. Halvorsen traveled with the national team to Hamburg where they were to play the German team in a qualifying match for the 1954 World Cup. By then, most of the former Nazis convicted of war crimes or crimes against humanity had been released from prison.

Asbjørn Halvorsen Portrait — Studio portrait of Asbjørn Halvorsen. Photo by Sjøwall (date unknown).

Halvorsen died in June 1955 suffering from the aftereffects of his time in the Nazi camps. Torture, maltreatment, and typhus likely caught up to him at the young age of fifty-six. Otto Harder was one of the enablers of the process that contributed to his former friend and teammate’s death.

“We shouldn’t mix up forgiving or forgetting.”

⏤ Jurgen Kowalewski

Retired history teacher